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Behaviorism

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Chapter 1 Behaviorism: A school of thought that defines psychology as the scientific study of observable behavior focus on stimulus-response relationships Gestalt psychology: A school of thought rooted in the idea that the whole (perception) is greater than the sum of its parts (sensation). Reaction to structuralism and functionalism-the whole is greater than the sum of the parts Freud Psychoanalysis: Theory of personality and method of psychotherapy, 06=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=5406089both of which assume that out motives are largely unconscious Proposed existence of unconscience and attempted to explain personality motivation and mental disorders. Skinner: Organism tend to repeat responses that lead to positive responses Humanistic revolt: An approach to personality that focuses on the self, subjective experience, and the capacity for fulfillment. Humans are basically good; humans are driven towards personal growth;disturbances as result of having needs blocked Cognitive and Physiological Psychology: Electrical stimulation of parts of brains elicit different emotional response; Connection between biochemical and psychological effect Evolutionary Psychology: Examines befavioral process in terms of adaption value for a species over the coutse of many generation Multicultural Psychology: Study how culture is transmitted through socialization practices and how culture colors one’s view of the world;Understanding others from their point of view Chapter 2 Neuron: Nerve cells that serve as the building blocks of the nervous system Dendrite: Extensions from the cell body of a neuron that receive incoming impulses Axon: Extensions of the cell body of a neuron that sends impulses to other neurons Myelin sheath : A layer of fatty cells that is tightly wrapped around the axon to insulate it and speed the movement of electrical impulses Action potential: An electrical impulse that surges though an axon, caused by an influx of positive ions in the neuron Synapse: The junction between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrites of another Acetylcholine: A neutotransmitter found throughout the nervous system that links the motor neurons and muscles Endorphins: A morphinelike neurotransmitter 06=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=5406089that is produced in the brain and is linked to pain control and pleasure Central nervus system (structure): The network of nerves contained within the brain and spinal cord Peripheral nervous system: The network of nerves that radiate from the central nervous sestem to the rest of the body.The PNS comprises the somatic and autonomic nervous systems Sensory Neurons: Neutons that send signals from the senses, skin, muscles, and internal organs to the central nervous system Interneurons: Central nervous system neurons that connect sensory inputs and motor outputs Motor neurons: Motion-producing neurons that transmit commands from the central nervous system to the muscles, glands, and organs Skeletal nervous system: Autonomic nervous system: The branch of the peripheral nervous system that connects the CNS to the involuntary muscles, organs, and glands Sympathetic nervous system: A branch of the autonomic nervous system that controls the involuntary activities of various organs and mobilizes the body for fight or flight–that heightens arousal and energizes the body for action Parasympathetic nervous system: A branch of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body and conserves energy Endocrine system: A collection of ductless glands that regulate aspects of growth, reproduction, metabolism, and begavior by secreting hormones Hormones: Chemical messengers secreted from endocrine glands, into the bloodstream, to various organs throughout the body Pituitary gland: A tiny gland in the brain that regulates growth and stimulates hormones in other endocrine glands at the command of the hypothalamus Brainstem: The inner core of the brain that connects to the spinal cord and contains the medulla, pons, and reticular formation Medulla: A brainstem structure that controls vital involuntary functions Reticular formation: A group of nerve cells in the brainstem06=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=5406089 that help to control sleep, arousal, and attention Cerebellum: A primitive brainstem structure that controls balance and coordinates complex voluntary movements Limbic system: A set of loosely connected structures in the brain that help to regulate motivation, emotion, and memory Amygdala: A limbic structure that controls fear, anger, and aggression Hypothalmus: A tiny limbic structure in the brain that helps regulate the autonomic nervous system, endocrine glands, emotions, and basic drives Cerebral cortex: The outermost covering of the brain, largely responsible for higher-order mental processes 4 lobes and their functions: Motor cortex: The area of the cortex that sends impulses to voluntary muscles Sensory cortex: Broca area: A region in the left hemisphere of the brain that directs the muscle movements in the production of speech Wernicke’s Area: A region in the left hemisphere of the brain that is involved in the comprehension of language Corpus Callosum: A bundle of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres Split brain studies: A surgically produced condition in which the corpus callosum is severed, thus cutting the link between the left and right hemispheres of the brain Chapter 3 Sensation: The processes by which our sense organs receive information from the environment Perception: The processes by which people select, organize, and interpret sensations Absolute threshold: The smallest amount of stimulation that can be detected Weber’s law:The principle that the just-noticeable difference of a stimulus is a constant proportion despite variations in intensity Sensory adaptation: A decline in sensitivity to a stimulus as a result of constant exposure Wavelength: Hue Intensity Pupil: The small round hole in the iris of the eye through which light passes Iris: The ring of muscle tissue that gives eyes their color and controls the size of the pupil Lens: A transparent structure in the eye that focuses light on the retina Accomodation: In Piaget’s theory, the process of modifying existing cognitive structures in response to new information.Also, the visual process by which lenses become rounded for viewing nearby objects and flatter for viewing remote objects Retina: The rear multilayer part of the eye where rods and cones convert light into neural impulses Rods: Rod-shape photoreceptor cells in the retina that are highly sensitive to light Cones: Cone-shape photoreceptor cells in the retina that are sensitive to color Optic nerve: The pathway that carries visual information from the eyeball to the brain Blind spot: A part of the retina through which the optic nerve passes. Lacking rods and cones, this spot is not responsive to light Audition: The06=50491=04816580=5406089sevnse of hearing Frequency: Pitch: Retinal disparity: The difference between two images we see, the greater the difference, the closer the object is to us Relative brightness: Dimmer obgects appe06=50491=04816580=5406089ar more distant Perceptual set: The effects of prior experience and expectations on interpretations of sensory input G06=50491=04816580=5406089estalt: “Form” or “Whole” Figure-ground: The organization of the visual field06=50491=04816580=5406089 into obgects (figures) taht stvand out from their surroundings (ground) Grouping: Proximity: we group close figures together Similarity: If fiqures are similar to each other we group them togethe06=50491=04816580=06=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=5406089=50491=04816580=5406089v6=50491=04816580=5406089089r Continuity: We percieve smooth, continues patterns rather than dicontinues ones Closure: If a figure has gaps, we complete it by filling in the gaps to create a complete whole object Binocular cues: Monocular cues: Distance cues, such as linear perspective, that enable us to perceive depth with one eye Convergence: A binocular cue for depth perception involving the turning inward of the eyes as an object gets closer Interposition: Nearby objects partially blick our view of more distant objects Relative height: Higher objects appear more distant Relative motion: When we mov06=50491=04816580=5406089llel lines as indication an increase of distance Chapter 4 Consciousness: An awareness of the sensations, thoughts and feelings that one is attending to at a given moment Selective attention: The ability to focus awareness on a single stimulus to the exclusion of other stimuli, as in the cocktail-party phenomenon Circadian rhythym: A biological cycle, such as sleeping and waking, that occurs approximately every twenty-four hours REM sleep: The rapid-eye-movement stage of sleep associated with dreaming Stages of sleep and brain waves involved: Insomnia: An inability to fall a06=50491=04816580=5406089sleep, stay asleep, or get the amount of sleep needed to function during the day Narcolepsy: A sleep disorder characterized by irresistable and sudden attacks of REM sleep during the day Psychoactive drug: A chemical that alters perceptions, thoughts, moods, or behavior Tolerance: Withdrawal: Dependence: A physiological addiction in which a drug is needed to prevent sym06=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=5406089ptoms of withdrawal Depressants: A class of drugs that slow down activity in the central nervous system (e.g., alcohol, barbiturates) Stimulants: A class of drugs that excite the central nervous system and energize behavior (e.g., amphetamines, cocaine) Hallucinogens: Psychedelic drugs that distort perceptions and cause hallucinations (e.g., LSD, marijuana) Sleep apnea: A disorder in which a person repeatedly stops breathing during sleep and awakens gasping for air Night terrors: When a person jolts abruptly from a deep sleep in a state of panic, and gives off a loud, bloodcurdling scream Manifest content: According to Freud, the conscious dream content that is remembered in the morning Latent content: According to Freud, the unconscious, censored meaning of a dream Hypnosis: Attention-focusing procedures in which changes in a person’s behavior or mental state are suggested LSD: One of the most known elicit Hallucinogens Barbiturates: sedative Opiates: A class of highly addictive drugs that depress neural activity and provide temporary relief from pain and anxiety (e.g., heroin, morphine) Amphetamines: stimulant Hallucination: Sensory experiences that occur in the absence of actual stimulation By: Travis Wonders Chapter 1 Behaviorism: A school of thought that defines psychology as the scientific study of observable behavior focus on stimulus-response relationships Gestalt psychology: A school of thought rooted in the idea that the whole (perception) is greater than the sum of its parts (sensation).

Reaction to structuralism and functionalism-the whole is greater than the sum of the parts Freud Psychoanalysis: Theory of personality and method of psychotherapy, both of which assume that out motives are largely unconscious Proposed existence of unconscience and attempted to explain personality motivation and mental disorders. Skinner: Organism tend to repeat responses that lead to positive responses Humanistic revolt: An approach to personality that focuses on the self, subjective experience, and the capacity for fulfillment. Humans are basically good; humans are driven towards personal growth;disturbances as result of having needs blocked Cognitiv06=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=5406089vv06=50491=04816580=5406089e and Physiological Psychology: Electrical stimulation of parts of brains elicit different emotional response; Connection between biochemical and psychological effect Evolutionary Psychology: Examines befavioral process in terms of adaption value for a species over the coutse o06=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=5406089vf many generation Multicultural Psychology: Study how culture is transmitted through socialization practices and how culture colors one’s view of the world;Understanding others from their point of view Chapter 2 Neuron: Nerve cells that serve as the building blocks of the nervous system Dendrite: Extensions from the cell body of a neuron that receive incoming impulses Axon: Extensions of the cell body of a neuron that sends impulses to other neurons Myelin sheath : A layer of fatty cells that is tightly wrapped around the axon to insulate it and speed the movement of electrical impulses Action potential: An electrical impulse that surges though an axon, caused by an influx06=50491=04816580=5406089 of1615906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=54060896527664 positive ions in the neuron Synapse: The junction between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrites of another Acetylcholine: A neutotransmitter found throughout the nervous system that links the motor neurons and muscles Endorphins: A morp06=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=5406089vhinelike neurotransmitter that is produced in the brain and is linked to pain control and pleasure Central nervus s06=50491=04816580=5406089ystem (struvvcture): The network of nerves contained within the brain and spinal cord Peripheral nervous system: The network of nerves that radiate from the767426767766547654 central nerv006=50491=04816580=54060896=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=5406089us sestem to tvhe rest of the body.The PNS comprises the somatic and autonomic nervous systems Sensory Neurons: Neutons that send signals from the senses, skin, muscles, and internal organs to the centravl vn06=50491=04816580=5406089ervous system Interneurons: Central nervous system neurons that connect sensory inputs and motor outputs Motor neurons: Motion-producing neurons that transmit commands from the06=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=5406089 central nervous system to the muscles, glands, and organs Skeletal nervous system: Autonomic nervous system: The branch of v=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=5406089e peripheral nervous system that connects the CNS to the involuntary muscles, organs, and glands Sympathetic nervous system: A branch of the autonvv06=50491=04816580=5406089vmic nervous system that controls the vinvoluntary activities of various organs and mobilizes the body for fight or flight–that heightens arousal and energizes the body for action Parasympathetic nervous system: A branch of th06=50491=04816580=5406089e autonomic nervous system that calms the body and conserves energy Endocrine system: A collec06=50491=04816580=5406089tivon of ductless glands that regulate aspects of growth, reproduction, metabolism, and begavior by secreting hormones Hormones: Chemical messengers secreted from endocrine glands, into the bloodstream, to various organs throughout the body Pituitary gland: A tiny gland in the brain that regulates growth and stimulates hormones in other endocrine glands at the command of the hypothalamus Brainstem: The inner core of the brain that connects to the spinal cord and contains the medulla, pons, and reticular formation Medulla: A brainstem structure that controls vital involuntary functions Reticular formation: A group of nerve cells in the brainstem that help to control sleep, arousal, and attention Cerebellum: A primitive brainstem structure that controls balan06=50491=04816580=5406089e 06=50491=04816580=5406089and06=50491=04816580=5406089 06=50491=04816580=5406089coordinates complex voluntary movements Limbic system: A set of loosely connected structures in the brain that help to regulate motivation, emotion, and memory Amygdala: A limbic structu06=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=5406089es Cerebral cortex: The outermost covering of the brain, largely responsible for higher-order mental processes 4 lobes and their functions: Motor cortex: The area of the cortex that sends impuls06=50491=04816580=5406089es to voluntary muscles Sensory cortex: Broca area: A region in the left hemisphere of the brain that directs the muscle movements in the production of speech Wernicke’s Area: A region in the left hemisphere of the brain that is involved in the comprehension of language Corpus Callosum: A bundle of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres Split brain studies: A surgically produced condition in which the corpus callosum is severed, thus cutting the link between the left and right hemispheres of the brain Chapter 3 Sensation: The processes by which our sense organs receive information from the environment Perception: The processes by which people select, organize, and interpret sensations Absolute threshold: The smallest amount o06=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=5406089f stimulation that can be detected Weber’s law:The principle that the just-noticeable difference of a stimulus is a constant proportion despite variations in intensity Sensory adaptation: A decline in sensitivity to a stimulus as a result of constant exposure Wavelength: Hue Intensity Pupil: The small round hole in the iris of the eye through which light passes Iris: The ring of muscle tissue that gives eyes their color and controls the size of the pupil Lens: A transparent structure in the eye that focuses light on the retina Accomodation: In Piaget’s theory, the process of modifying existing cognitive structures in response to new information.Also, the visual process by which lenses become rounded for viewing nearby objects and flatter for viewing remote objects Retina: The rear multilayer part of the eye where rods and cones convert light into neural impulses Rods: Rod-shape photoreceptor cells in the retina that are highly sensitive to light Cones: Cone-shape photoreceptor cells in the retina that are sensitive to color Optic nerve: The pathway that carries visual information from the eyeball to the brain Blind spot: A part of the retina through which the optic nerve passes. Lacking rods and cones, this spot is not responsive to light Audition: The sense of hearing Frequency: Pitch: Retinal disparity: The difference between two images we see, the greater the difference, the closer the object is to us Relative brightness: Dimmer obgects appear more distant Perceptual set: The effects of prior experience and expectations on interpretations of sensory input Gestalt: “Form” or “Whole”

Figure-ground: The organization of the visual field into obgects (figures) taht stand out from their surroundings (ground) Grouping: Proximity: we group close figures together Similarity: If fiqures are similar to each other we group them together Continuity: We percieve smooth, continues patterns rather than dicontinues ones Closure: If a figure has gaps, we complete it by filling in the gaps to create a complete whole object Binocular cues: Monocular cues: Distance cues, such as linear perspective, that enable us to perceive depth with one eye Convergence: A binocular cue for depth perception involving the turning inward of the eyes as a06=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=5406089n object gets closer Interposition: Nearby objects partially blick our view of more distant objects Relative height: Higher objects appear more distant Relative motion: When we 06=50491=04816580=5406089move, object at different distances change thier relative positions in out visual image with the closest moving fastest Linear Perspective: We percieve the converging of what we k06=50491=04816580=5406089no06=50491=04816580=5406089w to 06=50491=04816580=5406089be para06=50491=04816580=5406089el lines as indication an increase of distance Chapter 4 Consciousness: An awareness of the sensations, thoughts and feelings that one is attending to at a given moment Selective attention: The ability 06=50491=04816580=5406089focus awareness on a single stimulus to the exclusion of other stimuli, as in06=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=5406089 the cocktail-party phenomenon Circadian rhythym: A biological cycle, such as sleeping and waking, that occurs app06=50491=04816580=540608906=50491=04816580=5406089oximately every twenty-four hours REM sleep: The rapid-eye-movement stage of sleep associated with dreaming Sta06=50491=04816580=5406089 needed to function during the day Narcolepsy: A sleep disorder characterized by irresistable and sudden attacks of REM sleep during t06=50491=04816580=06=50491=04816580=54060896=50491=04816580=5406089 prevent symptoms of withdrawal Depressants: A class of drugs that slow down activity in the central nervous system (e.g., alcohol, barbiturates) Stimulants: A class of drugs that excite the central nervous system and energize behavior (e.g., amphetamines, cocaine) Hallucinogens: Psychedelic drugs that distort perceptions and cause hallucinations (e.g., LSD, marijuana) Sl06=50491=04816580=5406089eep apnea: A disorder in which a person repeatedly stops breathing during sleep and awakens gasping f06=50491=04816580=5406089r air Night terrors: When a person jolts abruptly from a deep sleep in a state of panic, a06=50491=04816580=5406089nd gives off a loud, bl06=50491=04816580=5406089curdling scream Manifest content: According to Freud, the conscious dream content that is remembered in the morning Latent content: According to Freud, the unconsc06=50491=04816580=5406089ious, censored meaning of a dream Hypnosis: Attention-focusing procedures in which changes in a person’s behavior or mental state are suggested LSD: One06=50491=04816580=5406089of the most known elicit Hallucinogens Barbiturates: sedative Opiates: A class of highly addictive drugs that depress neural activity and provide temporary relief from pain and anxiety (e.g., heroin, morphine) Amphetamines: stimulant Hallucination: Sensory experiences that occur in the absence of actual stimulation Bibliography Human Relations and Motavation copyright 1975 McGraw Hill Book co.

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