Adolescence is a critical period of identity development and it is during this period that individuation from parents and the formation of peer affiliations take central importance. In this period, actual and perceived evaluation of others becomes increasingly important. Cognitive changes in adolescence allow for a more sophisticated capacity for self-reflection and social perspective taking (Anastasopoulos, 1997). Like other self-conscious emotions, another research examines how shame takes on particular significance during late childhood and adolescence because of a developing capacity for self-reflection, self-other comparisons, and sensitivity to the views of others (Simonds, 2015). Most research documented a consistent increase in psychological well-being, especially among younger populations, between the 1960s and the 2000s.
Overall, adolescents of the 2000s were significantly higher in psychological well-being than those in the 1970s, 1980s, or 1990s. American adolescents’ happiness, domain satisfaction, and life satisfaction also increased between the 1990s and 2011 (Twenge et al., 2016).
There are many factors that regard to the psychological well-being amongst Adolescents, (ages 11 to 18) and this paper will be discussing defined research studies in reference to their gender, and age variations. Some of the research that will be discussed will explore that self-esteem in adolescents varies in age and gender from previous studies, it can be observed that females report lower self-esteem than males from ages 10 to 30 in Western cultures; males and females display different self-esteem patterns across the life span in all sociocultural regions, such that female self-esteem shows more fluctuation during adolescence; and sociocultural region significantly moderates patterns of age and gender differences in self-esteem (Helwig, 2017).
Another research will explain further how the current trends in how adolescents spend their social time may have an impact on psychological well-being, as well. Many studies have established a strong link between in-person social interaction and higher psychological well-being (Blakemore, 2012; Lieberman, 2014; Shakya & Christakis, 2017). Psychological well-being was lower in years when adolescents spent more time on screens and higher in years when they spent more time on non-screen activities, with changes in activities generally preceding declines in well-being (Twenge, 2018). Adolescents who report interpersonal difficulties with peers, either in the form of bullying victimization or bullying perpetration, report a wide range of long-lasting negative consequences, including lower academic performance (Nakamoto & Schwartz, 2010), involvement in criminal activities (Olweus, 2011), long-lasting mental health problems (Copeland, Wolke, Angold, & Costello, 2013), and suicidal ideation and/or attempts (Holt et al., 2015).
Another research top we will understand how in adolescent samples, correlational studies have shown that higher media consumption is related to higher levels of body dissatisfaction (e.g., Harrison & Cantor, 1997) and eating disorder symptomatology (e. g., Stice & Shaw, 2002).
Due to the number of concerns in the development of self-esteem in Adolescents, it is imperative that we get acquainted with a number of documented research which delves into Age, Gender, and Self-Esteem: A Sociocultural Look Through a Nonparametric Lens, Decreases in Psychological Well-Being Among American Adolescents After 2012 and Links to Screen Time During the Rise of Smartphone Technology, Development and Validation of the Adolescent Shame-Proneness Scale, Poor Response Inhibition and Peer Victimization: A Neurocognitive Ecophenotype of Risk for Adolescent Interpersonal Aggression, and The Effect of Cosmetic Surgery Reality TV Shows on Adolescent Girls’ Body Image.
These studies inform us that regarding age and gender differences in self-esteem are that males tend to report higher self-esteem than females during adolescence, and self-esteem tends to increase from late adolescence to middle adulthood for both males and females (Helwig, 2017). Self-esteem is more strongly associated with perceptions of physical attractiveness in females (Allgood-Merten, Lewinsohn, & Hops, 1990; McKinley & Hyde, 1996). As a result, unrealistically proportioned models in the media may have a negative impact on self-esteem, particularly for adolescent females (Kling et al., 1999). Adolescents who spent more time on electronic communication and screens (e.g., social media, the Internet, texting, gaming) and less time on nonscreen activities (e.g., in-person social interaction, sports/exercise, homework, attending religious services) had lower psychological well-being (Twenge, 2018). Shame is a potentially important variable in adolescent well-being given its established associations with depression, reduced feelings of self-worth, and problematic anger.
When a person feels shame, the focus of their attention is directed inward—the global self is the object of negative evaluation. This results in feeling small and exposed and produces a desire to hide, to disappear, and to avoid others. Shame is an intensely painful emotion that is associated with anger and anxiety. Conversely, when a person feels guilt, the focus of their attention is directed outward toward others—the specific behavior is the object of negative evaluation. This results in feelings of remorse and concern for others and a desire to approach others, to apologize, and repair the damage done. Guilt is a less painful emotion and is associated with sorrow and empathy (Kim et al., 2011). Additionally, studies analyze that there is a high co-occurrence between victimization and bullying perpetration and one perpetuates the other (Haynie et al., 2001). The desire to be accepted by peer group and to avoid social rejection may also drive victimized adolescents toward deviant peer groups in which the aggressive behavior is central to peer acceptance (Edalati, 2018).
Another issue studies will talk about is the effect of cosmetic surgery Reality TV shows on Adolescent girls’ body image and raise the questions of what the actual impact of these types of shows is on both adults and adolescents, not only in terms of attitudes toward cosmetic surgery, but also body image (Ashikali, 2014).
