Abstract
This paper explores the multidimensions of development during the time of infancy, or the developmental period experienced from the time of birth to age two. Through a careful review of the cognitive, physical, and socioemotional issues that arise during this monumental stage of life, information is provided regarding key developmental milestones and processes experienced during this early period. The crucial aspect of the caretaker-infant relationship is presented, and the lasting impact of attachment styles is explored to increase awareness as to the value the caretaker plays for the infant’s emotional, cognitive, and physical development. Several views on infancy development are explored in detail, including Freudian views among others. An explanation of developmental theories is presented and the impacts of trauma on this vulnerable population is provided for review. Intervention strategies during the time of infancy is explored and a general framework for understanding this population’s exceptionalities is provided for review.
Watch Me Grow: Exploring Infancy Development
From the time a baby is born, an immense journey of changes and development begins, and milestones are reached within the first two years of life. Through physical, cognitive, and socioemotional growth, an infant begins to interact with the world around them, develop their sense of identity, and relate with their caretaker, peers, culture, and environment. Through careful attachment, support, and human resilience, an infant gains confidence and begins to develop into stages of early childhood (Santrock, 2017). Even with traumatic experiences, infants carry the ability to press forward through obstacles and barriers to reach developmental accomplishments and grow into productive, creative, and successful children and adults. With careful intervention, attentive caretakers, and a supportive environment, infants are given all the ingredients necessary for healthy growth and a happy lifespan capable of learning and love.
Physical, Cognitive, and Socioemotional Issues
From their first breath of air, extensive amounts of growth and change begin to take place. Nearly all babies carried to full-term in North American weigh between five and 10 pounds and are 18 to 22 inches in length, with a large proportion of their body size being in the infant’s head (Santrock, 2017). This is due to the cephalocaudal pattern of growth, where physical growth occurs from the head first and then making its way down to the rest of the body (Santrock, 2017). Along with cephalocaudal growth, infants also experience proximodistal growth, where growth begins at the center of the body and gradually moves towards outer parts or extremities (Santrock, 2017). Growth occurs at an incredibly fast rate during the first year of life, with infants growing nearly one inch per month during the first year and slowing considerably by age two (Santrock, 2017).
In the realm of brain development, newborns show an increasing amount of brain activity to establish hemispheric function specialization through a process called lateralization (Santrock, 2017). Furthermore, before a baby is born and even into adolescence, a developing brain begins myelineation, a process that allows new neural pathways to be created and brain signal production to increase at an extremely high rate (Santrock, 2017). To facilitate this high rate of development, sleep is crucial for an infant and infants can sleep up to 18 hours per day during the first six months of life (Santrock, 2017). After this time, infants begin to display rapid eye movement sleeping styles, much like adults, only with a higher presence of dreams (Santrock, 2017). It is critical that infants consume at least 50 calories per day to support proper development, and it has been proposed that breastfeeding may be the best option to support healthy development for mother and child (Santrock, 2017).
During infancy, many factors begin to develop the infant’s motor skills, including the growth of the nervous system. At birth, babies begin to move through reflexes, such as the Moro reflexes of sucking and rooting, which are crucial to the baby’s survival (Santrock, 2017). As the baby develops, they gain the ability to sit upright, crawl, stand, and walk typically within the first year of life (Santrock, 2017). Within the first two years of life, infants develop more advanced skills beyond those of sucking and crawling, towards grasping and reaching for objects (Santrock, 2017). As infants begin to develop their sense of perception, they interact and adapt to their environment and begin to visually scan faces, determine size and shapes, and even develop depth perception by six months of age (Santrock, 2017). It is important to note that babies can hear and differentiate between odor and taste within the womb during the last two months of pregnancy and begin to develop the ability to integrate sensory input within the first year of life (Santrock, 2017).
In following Piaget’s Theory of Infant Development, infants enter the first of four stages, referred as the sensorimotor stage, and remain in this stage until approximately their second year of life (Santrock, 2017). At this level, infants develop the concept of object permanence and begin to comprehend the phenomenon of cause and effect (Santrock, 2017). Furthermore, infants participate in operant conditioning and begin to shift attention from orientation and habituation to dishabituation, paving the way for joint attention and language development (Santrock, 2017). At this stage, infants further develop the hippocampus and frontal lobe areas of the brain, creating the ability for conscious memory by age two (Santrock, 2017). In terms of language development, newborns graduate from the ability to cry to the ability to coo at one to months old, babbling at six months old, using gestures by eight to 12 months old, understanding some words by 12 months old, and eventually speaking their first word by 13 months old (Santrock, 2017). Researchers argue that babies are born with a prewired language acquisition device that grants humans an advantage over other animals for survival purposes and creates the possibility for a vast expansion of word comprehension by age two (Santrock, 2017).
At birth, a baby is born with the ability to communicate through crying and has three distinct forms of crying to portray emotion to their caregiver: pain, anger, and basic cries (Santrock, 2017). By two months of age, a baby has the capability to smile and begins to develop fears of separation and stranger anxiety (Santrock, 2017). Researchers propose three classifications of infant temperament, difficult, slow to warm, and easy, and suggest that guardians pay close attention to ensure they are being sensitive to the infant’s specific individual features, mindful of not negatively labeling the infant, and flexible in their response patterns to the infant’s individual needs (Santrock, 2017). At birth, an infant begins to navigate personality development through feelings of trust versus mistrust, moves towards self-recognition around age 18 months, and towards establishing independence towards age two (Santrock, 2017).
During infancy, attachment is a crucial developmental feature. Infants utilize their attachment with their caregiver as the basis for which they begin to explore their environments and sets the stage for psychological development throughout their lifespan (Santrock, 2017). Three forms in insecure attachment styles exist: resistant, avoidant, and disorganized (Santrock, 2017). These attachment styles can greatly impact healthy development later in life and much research has been conducted regarding the role of the hormone oxytocin within the brain in the development of attachment between infant and caregiver (Santrock, 2017). It is also important to address the role of socialization within the changing household after a baby is born. As a family system changes to accommodate for a newborn’s needs, parents guide behavior as the mother emerges within a caretaking role and the father emerges within a playful role with the growing infant (Santrock, 2017).
Theories of Individual and Family Development and Transitions Across the Lifespan
A key factor in the individual development of an infant that greatly impacts the way in which they interact with others and their environment is attachment. Infancy expert John Bowlby established the Bowlby Attachment theory, which explores the role of infant attachment with the caregiver in determining the efficacy of social interactions across the infant’s lifespan (Santrock, 2017). Bowlby theorized that newborns have an innate ability and need for attachment from birth in order to survive, and this attachment is designed by motivational patterns to ensure the infant remains close to the caregiver in order to remain safe and secure (Santrock, 2017). Furthermore, it has been found that different types of attachment styles exist depending on the relationship the infant develops with the caregiver (Santrock, 2017). For example, if an infant has a responsive and attentive caregiver they will develop secure attachment that will enable them to securely attach to others later in life, and if an infant has a non-reliable or inconsistent caregiver they may develop an avoidant or disorganized attachment style that may cause later problems regarding social interactions in life (Santrock, 2017).
In addition to social interactions, cognitive development is critical during the stage of infancy and theorist Jean Pieget established a framework to better understand the way in which thought processes shape how individuals comprehend the world around them (Santrock, 2017). Within Pieget’s Cognitive Development Theory, four stages are proposed to showcase the sequence of infant and child cognitive development: the sensorimotor stage, the preoperational stage, the concrete operational stage, and the formal operational stage (Santrock, 2017). The sensorimotor stage occurs during infancy, or during the time of birth to age two (Santrock, 2017). During this period, a large amount of growth occurs, and infants gain knowledge of the world around them through their innate senses and motor capabilities and progress through six substages of development: reflexes, primary circular reactions, secondary circular reactions, coordination of reactions, tertiary circular reactions, and early representational thought (Santrock, 2017). Furthermore, Pieget proposed the crucial aspect of establishing object permanence during the sensorimotor stage in infancy, or the infant’s ability to understand that objects exist even when the infant cannot hear or see the object (Santrock, 2017).
In addition, theorist Sigmund Freud proposed one of the most well-known theories of childhood development, with a focus on unconscious thought and desires and the way in which these thoughts guide behavior throughout development. Within Freud’s Psychosexual Development Theory, Freud proposed that early life experiences play the largest role in establishing development and presented five psychosexual stages in which a human travels across their lifespan: oral stage, anal stage, phallic stage, latent stage, and genital stage (Santrock, 2017). With focus upon the pleasure-seeking characteristics of the id, Freud states that these underlying psychosexual energies drive developing behaviors and each stage must be successfully completed to prevent a fixation from occurring and the individual from becoming “stuck” at a particular stage (Santrock, 2017). During the first stage, or the oral stage that occurs from the time of birth to age one, energies are focused upon the erogenous areas of the mouth and the infant interacts with the world around them via sucking and rooting reflexes (Santrock, 2017). At this crucial developmental level, the infant must develop a level of trust via oral stimulation through feeding by their caretaker and begin the weaning process or risk becoming fixated and thus creating problems in aggression and oral problems later in life such as biting their nails, problems with eating, and even smoking (Santrock, 2017).
Between the ages of one and three, the infant enters the anal stage where energies are focused upon the erogenous zone of the bowel and bladder (Santrock, 2017). At this point, infants begin to discover how to control their own bodily functions, therefore becoming more independent. Freud draws attention to the key aspect of parental feedback during toilet training and proposes that infants whose parents provide positive feedback during this stage develop into competent adults and infants who parents are too relaxed or too strict during this stage can later produce destructive or obsessive individuals in adulthood (Santrock, 2017). Through careful reinforcement of timely and appropriate toilet training, parents enable the child to establish a sense of confidence that carries the infant into later developmental stages with a framework for capability and creativity (Santrock, 2017).
Theories of Learning and Personality Development of Population Including Current Understanding of Neurological Behavior
Similar to Freudian theory, but with a focus more on social interaction within the family and environment, Erik Erikson proposed a psychosocial developmental theory to present the impact of early socialized experiences and the conflicts that may arise at different stages within the human lifespan (Santrock, 2017). Erikson presented eight stages that humans experience throughout a lifetime, with each stage containing a crucial turning point that must be reached in order overcome challenges and successfully develop into the next stage in life without presenting further problems or dilemmas (Santrock, 2017). Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Theory contains the following stages of personality development: trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame and guilt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, and integrity vs. despair (Santrock, 2017). The most fundamental stage, trust vs. mistrust, occurs during a time of complete dependency upon a caregiver, from the time of birth to age one (Santrock, 2017). At this stage, the infant must develop a sense of trust within their caregiver that their needs will be met or develop a sense of mistrust if caregivers are absent or avoidant, thus leading the infant to carry this sense of mistrust into their comprehension of the world around them (Santrock, 2017). Furthermore, it is important to note that infants begin to develop the idea of hope, creating a healthy balance between trust and mistrust and enabling the infant to interact with the world around them with a sense of openness while being mindful that dangers may also exist (Santrock, 2017).
After the first stage of Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Theory, infants continue into the second stage of development, autonomy vs. shame and doubt. This stage continues into early childhood and at this stage infants and children become focused on establishing a sense of personal control (Santrock, 2017). Infants begin to gain basic control of their movements and continue to develop to make their own decisions, control bodily functions, and make preferences towards clothing or food options (Santrock, 2017). If completed successfully, this stage enables a young child to develop a sense of self-confidence and security (Santrock, 2017). If unsuccessful, the child may experience feelings of continual self-doubt and inadequacy within their frame of mind, having a lasting impact that could carry through later stages of development across the lifespan (Santrock, 2017).
In addition, psychologist Albert Bandura developed a theory for learning that showcased the importance of conditioning and reinforcement processes (Santrock, 2017). Through Bandura’s Social Learning Theory, three core concepts are presented: humans learn through observation, an individual’s mental state impacts the learning process, and the idea that learning may not always cause a behavioral change (Santrock, 2017). Bandura proposed that while infants learn new behaviors through watching their caretakers and interacting with their environment, infants also develop through listening and observing things not within their direct realm of influence (Santrock, 2017). For example, an infant may begin to develop thought regarding new behaviors after viewing an action on the television or from a story book.
Like Bandura, psychologist Lev Vygotsky explored the development of infant learning and proposed the importance of learning via hands-on experience within an active role (Santrock, 2017). Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory states that while caretakers and peers play a critical role in infant development, the larger scope of culture plays an immense role in developing more advanced functioning (Santrock, 2017). Vygotsky proposed the importance of the aspect of the zone of proximal development, or the range of capabilities that an individual can complete with the support of a caretaker or peer, but not yet on their own independently (Santrock, 2017). Furthermore, the importance of play within learning is established and explores the ways in which abstract thought is fostered through creative and imaginative play to stretch knowledge and conceptualization of the infant’s world around them (Santrock, 2017).
Potential Effects of Crisis, Disasters, or Other Traumatic Events on the Population
When exposed to trauma, each infant will experience and respond in their own individual manner depending on several different factors, including the type and duration of the trauma and the caretaker’s ability to protect the infant from further harm (Lieberman & Knorr, 2007). Because infants are not yet able to utilize verbal language to express distressing emotions, it is critical for caretakers and helping professionals to understand sensorimotor disruptions as symptoms of trauma and assist the developing infant in re-establishing security (Lieberman & Knorr, 2007). These symptoms, such as prolonged crying, feeding disruptions, and agitation, can serve as a key indicator that the infant is experiencing signs of insecure attachment and has perceived danger within their environment (Lieberman & Knorr, 2007). If continued without care and support, these symptoms can cause a complete breakdown in self-protecting coping tactics, causing an infant to resort to inflexible self-protection devices and the inability to continue to learn, love, and connect with the world around them (Lieberman & Knorr, 2007). Furthermore, it is important to note that traumatized parents must seek care to present available to care for their developing infant; if perceived as unavailable, the infant risks developing feelings of anxiety and mistrust in their caregiver and experiencing developmental problems later in life (Lieberman & Knorr, 2007).
In a 2014 study, a researcher investigated the ability for infants, and babies even younger than infancy in the womb, to feel and comprehend experiences of pain and trauma (Coates, 2014). Coates established indisputable evidence that infants experience pain and stress and possess the ability to record these memories within a somatic memory framework (Coates, 2014). Coates (2014) presented the ability for infants and children early in developmental stages to present signs of post traumatic stress disorder through nonverbal methods, such as symbolic play. Even more crucial to address is the presence of trauma within the caretaker relationship, as this causes weighty disruptions in attachment styles that can follow an individual far beyond infancy (Coates, 2014). It is hopeful to note, however, that when secure attachment is re-established, infants have the capability to frame their experienced trauma as a solitary outlier event, thus not affecting later development and attachment styles (Coates, 2014).
Theories and Models of Individual, Cultural, Couple, Family, and Community Resilience of the Population
In a 2011 study, a researcher explored the role of infant resilience in overcoming adverse life experiences and developmental disabilities (Papoušek, 2011). Following data collected from a 40-year study conducted on children raised among numerous risk factors on the island of Kauai, Papoušek presented that resilience within infancy was not established as an innate trait, but instead developed through interactions within positive care-receiving experiences (Papoušek, 2011). Papoušek (2011) found that the resiliency exists in the core of the self, or within a sense of self-security and confidence, and not within the characteristics of displaying as the strongest, and presented that resiliency developed a deeper sense of curiosity and exploration to grow problem-solving aptitudes. The study further discussed the ability for the caretaker-infant relationship to create the possibility for resiliency to cultivate through fostering non-verbal communication for the caretaker and infant, thus building the capacity for secure attachment, healthy curiosity, self-soothing abilities, and growth (Papoušek, 2011). As a result of the study, Papoušek (2011) calls for professionals to further develop programs for all children, not just those presenting problematic behaviors within a clinical setting, to improve prevention efforts to increase the awareness for the need of secure parent-infant relationships and provide counseling support.
In addition to infant resilience, it is crucial to address the importance of parental resilience in providing appropriate and healthy support for their young child. New parents undergo an immense amount of change during the first year of childcare, and often interpret negative feedback from their baby as a personal failure or lack of parenting abilities (Verhage, Oosterman, & Scheungal, 2015). In a 2015 study, 179 first-time mothers were studied across a 12-month period to examine the impacts of having a new baby within the household (Verhage et al., 2015). It was found that the women who displayed lower levels of resilience perceived negative feedback as a display of low parenting self-efficacy, and thus displayed a negative disposition (Verhage et al., 2015). Implications from this study include the need for further research to build new parent resiliency to decrease negative feedback attributions as personal failures and build healthy bonding opportunities between caregiver and infant (Verhage et al., 2015).
A General Framework for Understanding Exceptional Abilities and Need for Differentiated of the Population
Investigating symptoms proves difficult during the period of infancy due to the nonverbal nature of this developmental stage (Speranza, Malberg, & Steele, 2018). Speranza et al. (2018) proposed a comprehensive approach for the evaluation of infants to include observations of functioning, observations of infant-caregiver interactions, and interviews conducted with parental caregivers. By utilizing a broad and integrative approach, researchers take into consideration attachment theory, the impact of social neuroscience in understanding how relationships affect the development of stress and emotional regulation, and the importance of developmental psychology to encourage early intervention (Speranza et al., 2018). Speranza et al. (2018) utilized this framework to explore the effect of depression within a mother can have on an infant’s cognitive development, placing them at risk for the development of social, emotional, and cognitive dysfunctional due to the amount of time infant and mother spend within negative states and causing the infant to match the mother’s emotion. Furthermore, Speranza et al. (2018) found that infants with depressed maternal figures may experience regulation disturbances, an increased heart rate, and elevated cortisol levels, leading to depressive symptoms and a decrease in academic performance later in life.
On the other hand, Dalzell (1998) explored the use of intelligence testing to determine future giftedness in infants as young at eight months old, but found infancy intelligence to be unsuccessful when utilized prior to age two. Dalzell (1998) presented the use of habituation studies to measure cognitive functioning and memory, the use of parental interviews, and direct observation, as gifted children display precocity from birth. It was found that caretaker abilities and attachment vastly impact cognitive and intellectual growth, and infants who were more securely attached developed in a more inquisitive, regulated, and self-directed manner (Dalzell, 1998). Furthermore, Dalzell (1998) presented that advanced language development prior to age two can be a large indicator of giftedness later in life and infants move beyond word formation towards advanced conceptualization abilities. While intelligence testing in infants can prove successful, it is also important to remember that key developmental cognitive changes occur after infancy and thus impact the prediction of future intelligence and functioning (Santrock, 2017).
Detailed Description of Intervention & Timeline Needed to Implement Intervention for Population
In 2017, Mihelic, Morawska, and Filus conducted a meta-analysis of 36 trials carried out during pregnancy or within the infant’s first year of life involving coaching strategies for infant development, modifying behavior, or prevention methods. Through their study, it was found that early parental interventions were effective in increasing parental responsivity and improving infant sleep quality but unsuccessful in reducing crying difficulties (Mihelic et al., 2018). Mihelic et al. (2018) further concluded that shorter intervention periods produced higher success rates than longer intervention states and discussed the efficacy of early parental intervention techniques for infants younger than one years old. Within the study, the theme of parental responsiveness proved crucial to the healthy development of the infant, and interventions focused upon the increasing parental settling strategies, parental confidence, and parental confidence were successful in establishing healthy infant attachment styles and thus placing the infant on a healthy developmental track (Mihelic et al., 2018).
Aspoas and Amod (2014) further explored the importance of parental roles within their study of parent-infant intervention to establish health attachment. Within the study, it was presented that mothers are crucial to overall mental health and determines the foundation for which physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development is built (Aspoas & Amod, 2014). The study presents that through attachment, infants develop the ability to comprehend their own mental states as they view their caregivers in interpreting their desires and thoughts and this “reflective functioning” further establishes all forms of development. Aspoas and Amod (2014) utilized a form of early intervention with infants and their mothers, referred to as the Baby Mat Project, to showcase the efficacy of the intervention and the value gained by the caretaker. It was found that while the intervention, focused upon allowing caretakers to openly discuss concerns about their infant and establish healthy bonding with their baby, was successful, it is important to conduct the intervention within the realm of influence of the caretaker, such as the home, and not only in a clinical setting (Aspoas & Amod, 2014).
Conclusion
In conclusion, the human infant undergoes an immense time of growth and development from the moment they arrive out of the womb. Through social, cognitive, and physical growth, an infant develops at an incredibly fast pace within their first years of life and overcomes obstacles and challenges to develop into early childhood years. By understanding the impacts of trauma, resilience, and early intervention, parents are given the tools necessary to support their child in achieving important developmental milestones and obtaining life-long success.
