Over the past several years, teen dating violence (TDV) has become a major health concern. It affects social relationships in adolescence and has been connected to negative implications in the future, impacting health and well-being (Exner, 2014). TDV has been discovered as a serious problem in the adolescent community. In adolescents, TDV has been described as physical, sexual and/or psychological aggression experienced in pre and mid adolescent dating relationships (Exner, 2014). An alarming rate of approximately 9% of teens in the United States have reported that either a girlfriend or a boyfriend has hit, slapped or physically assaulted them in the last 12 months. Thirty percent of males and females have stated that they experienced psychological aggression while dating in their lifetime (Exner, 2014).
Many women and men have been victims of sexual violence, stalking or intimate partner violence at least once. While these issues affect both, women are more disproportionately involved (Breiding, 2015). The increased rates of intimate partner violence in recent years has been associated with various risk factors for the victims and the perpetrators. Many studies have observed the relationship between teen dating violence and risk factors presented in the community, family, peer groups and individual risk (CDC, 2020). In addition, findings have suggested that teen dating violence increases in frequency and severity as a teen age. More serious consequences later in life have also been identified. The goal of this literature review is to discuss the risk factors associated with teen dating violence victimization and perpetration, identify ethical and legal considerations and compare preventative methods for programming.
Teen Dating Violence
Teen dating violence has been identified as physical, psychological and sometimes sexual abuse among individuals as early as preadolescence. Recently, more attention is placed on the results of TDV, which are increased levels of depression, suicidality, and poor educational outcomes (Banyard & Cross, 2008). As many as 25% of high schoolers have reported instances of psychological, physical and sexual TDV, while up to 50% have reported some participation in TDV perpetration against a partner (Niolon et al., 2015). Due to the increase in the perpetration and victimization of TDV, there has been an interest in the development of TDV prevention strategies.
Risk Factors for Teen Dating Violence
Adolescents who are more likely to be victims of teen dating violence have most likely experienced a stressful life event, come from a disadvantaged population, exposed to violence in the community, participate in risky behaviors, begin dating earlier than their peers, may have experienced sexual activity before 16 years old and have been exposed to harsh and inconsistent parenting (CDC, 2020). In addition, they may display antisocial behaviors, have low self-esteem or depressive tendencies and may have poor conflict management styles.
Those individuals who are perpetrators of dating violence may have difficulties manager emotions like frustration and anger, associate with peers who are violent, does not have parental support, believes that aggressive behaviors are acceptable and may have low self-esteem and issues with depression (CDC, 2020). These individuals may have also been exposed to violence in their homes or communities. This concern also affects individuals of varying cultural groups and genders (Ruiz, 2013).
Maas, Fleming, Herrenkohl & Catalano (2010), also suggested that there are childhood risks that increase chances that a young person will become a victim of TDV. Some of the risks they identified were poverty, child maltreatment and the exposure to intimate partner violence of a parent. Additional findings by Maas et al. (2010) suggest that understanding how youth are affected by early exposure to risk factors is just as important as understanding how victimization can be avoided later. Building positive social skills and attachment build protective factors against antisocial behaviors and violence (Maas et al., 2010). The results of Maas et al. (2010) study determined that violence in the family whether it was child maltreatment or domestic violence of the parents, there was a correlation between the victimization of females in TDV. On the other hand, male victimization had a direct correlation to child maltreatment.
The Ecological Systems Theory has been characterized as a social ecological model that places focus on understanding how a child’s characteristics interact with environmental contexts, or systems with intentions on promoting or preventing victimization and perpetration consistent with TDV (Espelage, 2014). This theory has been intricate in understanding bullying behaviors, aggression and victimization among adolescents. Youth bullying prevention has seen improvements in bullying behaviors from incorporating the microsystem such as the peers, family, community and schools. Each of these factors have contributed to the rates of bullying behaviors perpetrated and experienced (Espelange, 2014).
The researchers explain in their article that when components of the microsystem work together, this is called the mesosystem. The mesosystem offers an understanding as to why certain behaviors or can increase or decrease experiences for youth. For instance, researchers have found that when parents are supportive, peer victimization can be shielded (Espelange, 2014). These findings are crucial in the development of prevention programs since it places importance on the systems and understands the roles they play in direct, indirect and dynamic influences on development and behaviors.
Most recently, prevention programming has been developed and targeted towards high school aged students. With the increase of TDV happening more frequently with young people between the ages of 9 and 12 years old with a peak at 18, prevention starting in early adolescence may be the best window for intervention strategies (Niolon et. al., 2015). The multisystem used in prevention are supported by the ecological systems theory. Prevention at the basic level incorporates all adults in the school, teaches professional development on the topics and how to identify and intervene when needed. Staff members and students are also encouraged to work together to gain knowledge and skills to reduce violent behaviors and promote prosocial behaviors (Espelange, 2014).
In the research articles, the researchers discussed the importance of starting prevention early on by understanding the good and bad experiences that youth have had with dating, discussing the social context of dating and focusing on those individuals who are in the beginning stages of dating (Noonan & Charles, 2009). When these factors are targeted early on, it is believed that it will prevent abusive beliefs, attitudes and the behavioral interactions that are all associated with TDV.
Based on research by Noonan & Charles (2009), the initial dating relationship starts with 12 years old at 25%, 15 years old at 50% and almost 75% for eight and ninth graders. This further shows the importance of starting prevention for this population during preadolescence.
Programs that target youth before dating has started may counteract dating violence and later Intimate Partner Violence. In 2002, the CDC developed a prevention campaign targeting youth which change social norms that have been supportive of victimization and perpetration of TDV (Noon & Charles, 2009). As determined by Taylor, Mumford & Stein (2015) many studies on TDV have targeted students in the eight grade and older with studies of younger students and prevention programs being sparse.
The researchers found that offering prevention courses to students in the sixth and seventh grade presented positive findings on program effectiveness (Taylor, Mumford & Stein, 2015). However, what they also determined was that there were no significant positive effects that were associated with classroom only interventions of their program. Based on this, it is evident that younger groups would benefit from intervention, however the means in which they are targeted may need to be reevaluated.
While various systems play a role in responding to dating violence, there is still little known about the impact of dating policies in middle and high school. According to Taylor, Mumford & Stein (2015) their findings suggest that prevention policies be implemented in the schools and enforced among disruptive students. There is also a firm belief that the success of these prevention policies includes teacher support from the beginning and into implementation (Taylor, Mumford & Stein, 2015).
In Taylor, Mumford & Stein’s study, they discussed the Texas model for school based TDV policies. Each school district is required to have a policy developed and implemented on dating violence. The policy must contain a definition of dating violence, address any safety planning or enforcement, include training for personnel as well as counseling for students and awareness education for parents and students (Taylor, Mumford & Stein, 2015). This has been identified as an important addition to school districts, but the researchers also determined that these policies still need a lot of work because it does not give as much protection to the victims. This is important to consider in the development of prevention programming since it will need to indicate protection to the victims and repercussion to the perpetrators.
In another program, Dating Matters, 11 – 14-year-old youth are targeted. Specifically, these youth are live in high crime urban communities that are disadvantaged, and they are most likely at the highest risk for TDV perpetration and victimization (Tharp, 2012). The foundation of this program is set in the schools and it relies heavily on the participating of the parents and the teachers. Activities of this program target risk factors that have foundations in psychological, physical and sexual TDV. There is also the development of curricula used to teach youth and free online training for teachers (Tharp, 2012). Due to the effectiveness of the program, Parents Matter was developed to further engage parents of the youth and develop prevention tools that can be used by them in their prevention efforts.
As stated by Bruhn (2001), intervention is developed to enhance the quality of life. Attitudes and values are changed, and problems are not just solved. Interventions that are successful should have participants that emerge from the program believing that they can manage their values in an effective way. Ethically, it is the responsibility of the professional to build trust and to explain to the participants the outcomes intended, explaining the duties and responsibilities of the participants and signing an informed consent (Bruhn, 2001). Also, participant buy in not only encourages acceptance of goals but assists in the overall success of the program.
Legally, the status of dating violence among youth varies by state. Due to the requirement that certain professionals and researchers are mandated to report knowledge of abuse to law enforcement officers, this can be a complicated situation to navigate. (Hickman, Jaycox & Aronoff, 2004). As a researcher, the intent is to develop an effective preventative program while also gaining the trust and respect of your participants. However, this can have legal ramifications since certain aspects of the research process may require sensitive information to develop a suitable program. Based on research by Hickman, Jaycox & Aronoff (2004) some states including California require the reporting of child abuse or knowledge of suspicion. This obligation can place limitations on studies and evaluative designs for prevention programs targeting adolescents. It becomes the researcher’s legal responsibility to report dating violence when made aware an in turn this can change the support of those participating.
The risk factors associated with teen dating violence victimization and perpetration can make individuals more susceptible to being victims or perpetrators. Therefore, identifying these factors can assist in the development of effective prevention programs. There is also a need to understand how identifying the ethical and legal considerations are important to a program’s success and how they can make the difference in how participants support efforts for change. Despite the challenges that exist, the overall impact that a prevention program can make for a community suffering from teen dating violence outweighs the negatives that exist.
