In this literature review it will explore the effects and the brain structure and function and what psychiatric diseases are linked to the certain parts of the brain that is affected. When children experience child abuse (physical, mentally) and neglect they have difficulties later in life such as with their socioeconomic status, brain development and function and increased risk of psychiatric disorders.
The first factor is socioeconomic status, and this includes, toxic stress and health risk behaviors, poor mental and physical health, lower wages and lower education, early parenthood, compromised financial security, and substance abuse (Kimberley, 2018, p.1134). These are factors that can all be increased when abused and neglected. The first risk is toxic stress and health risk factors. When being exposed to a toxic environment at an early age, it can change the brain and make it more difficult to control stress, experience social and emotional events. These toxic environments can help increase the risk of mental illnesses among these individuals of early exposure. Poor mental and physical health happens when increased stress happens and the limbic and paralimbic regions of the brain can have an increased risk of psychiatric syndromes and cognitive dysfunction. (Gould, 2012, p.5).
The estimated number of mental disorders that are associated with child adversities in the U.S. and nationally by 38–45% of childhood-onset mental disorders; and 28–29% of early-adult onset mental disorders. (Green, 2010, p.3) When there are lower wages and less education present with children that have been diagnosed with Early Life Stress (ELS) and they have shown that the performance is more poorly on intellectual, cognitive and achievement tasks (Gould, 2012, p.3). Compromised financial security is when these individuals experience financial struggles, and it can have an impact and be associated with poorer health, poor family, and poor child development. Substance abuse is abusing drugs in adolescence and this can lead to early parenthood. Early parenthood can lead to little or no education which effects income and brings upon more stress. (Kimberley, 2018, pp.1134-1137; Gould, 2012, pp. 2-11).
Brain development and function is another major factor of abuse and neglect. It can affect the amygdala, hippocampus, cerebral cortex, sensory cortex and fibre pathways, corpus collosum, striatum, cerebellum, and memory performance decrease. Amygdala is an increase of amygdala volumes had early exposure to neglect both physically and emotionally. Reduction in amygdala volumes were more likely to have mental illnesses and exposure to all different types of abuse during childhood. These findings are showing that depending on what type of childhood maltreatment are associated with different psychiatric disorders (Tiecher, 2016, p.257). There is a massive amount of research and evidence for sensitive exposure to the hippocampus, amygdala, and prefrontal cortex (Tiecher, 2016, p.258).
When the hippocampus is affected this is from increased maltreatment and has an impact on hippocampus development with or without psychiatric disorders. Significantly, more likely to develop psychiatric diseases then in the control group when hippocampus was affected. Cerebral cortex and the three portions of the cerebral cortex help decision making, and emotional regulation. The changes in the functions and connectivity are a factor in addiction. Sensory cortex and fibre pathways and the diminishing of the somatosensory cortex can lead to behavioral problems and sexual dysfunction. The visual limbic associated with cortical regions can begin to cause issues such as verbal comprehension, visual recall and emotional responses to events that has happened. (Tiecher, 2016, p.260)
Corpus callosum affects boys more than girls with the exposure of maltreatment has a greater reduction in the corpus callosum. There is a huge reduction in the corpus callosum when foster children were placed in institutional care in the study (Oswald, 2010, p.463). According to the findings of Tiecher, it was found that the corpus callosum is most vulnerable to the type of neglect in males and females. (Tiecher, 2016, p.250). When the striatum is affected there is plenty of evidence to prove that there is maltreatment, and there are reduced anticipatory reward response in portions of the striatum.
The cerebellum is highly sensitive to early life stress (ELS). “Early childhood is a critical period in a child’s life that includes ages from conception to five years old. Psychological stress is an inevitable part of life. When stress builds up in early childhood, neurobiological factors are affected. In turn, levels of the stress hormone cortisol exceed normal ranges. Memory performance decrease is individuals that experience increased stress such as maltreatment, they have reduced adrenocortical secretion and reactivity” (Cicchetti, 2010). Neglected children are more likely to have memory problems than children that are not abused. (Tiecher, 2016, pp.243-253; Cicchetti, 2010, pp.1506-1507). In research, neuroimaging findings have proved that when these functions of the brain are damaged it could lead to different type of psychiatric disorders. People that report physical or sexual abuse have a 70 % chance of developing depression, substance abuse, or other psychiatric disorders. (McGrath, 2017, p.2)
Psychiatric disorders impact individuals that have been neglected or abused and have impacted their lives significantly. When certain types of the brain are affected there is an increased risk of psychiatric disorders depending on what part of the brain was affected. The amygdala can be affected and there is increased risk of PTSD, social phobias, bipolar depression, drug addiction, schizophrenia, autism, and borderline personality disorder. Damage to the amygdala is caused by emotional or physical abuse. When the hippocampus is affected increased risk of unstable relationships, suicide attempts, substance abuse, MDD, BPD, post-traumatic stress disorder, major depression, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and borderline personality disorder. The damage that is caused in the hippocampus is from child maltreatment. Children with a history of maltreatment have smaller hippocampus than individuals that were non-maltreated (Tiecher, 2016, p.244).
The cerebral cortex is affected when there is a decrease in decision making, emotional regulation, and the risk for addiction. With the sensory cortex and fibre pathways being affected there is low verbal comprehension, depressive, dissociative symptoms, major depression, anxiety and somatization. The damage that occurs in sensory cortex and fibre pathways is exposure to parental verbal abuse as a child. The results of the corpus callosum and when affected these psychiatric diseases are more likely to occur, bipolar disorder, social anxiety disorder, schizophrenia, schizotypal personality disorder, major depression, ADHD, and psychopathy. When the corpus callosum is damaged it’s from child abuse and neglect (Tiecher, 2016, pp.252-255). The striatum shows evidence that is associated with reward response and can show that a consistent influence of maltreatment can negatively impact brain function. The damage to the striatum is (ELS) and child maltreatment.
The cerebellum is affected these diseases can be present, schizophrenia, antisocial personality disorder, bipolar disorder, major depression, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and ADHD. Damage to the cerebellum is linked to (ELS) Early Life Stress and child maltreatment. When memory performance decrease happens individuals that experience increased stress such as maltreatment, they have reduced adrenocortical secretion and reactivity. Neglected children are more likely to have memory problems than children that are not abused. Damage to memory performance can be from emotional maltreatment, physical abuse, and sexual abuse. (Tiecher, 2016, pp.243-253; Cicchetti, 2010, pp.1506-1507).
The landmark case is Dupuy V. Samuel. An investigation is being done because a seven-month-old in daycare has been severely burned. The mother has been accused but they are saying it’s the daughter. In child abuse cases there needs to be proof, and the injury needs to be traceable. You must have “credible evidence”. “Emphasizing that children suffer the loss of a stable environment when a caregiver is unjustly indicated, and that an actual perpetrator is free to continue working in the child care field.” For the right individuals to be locked up they need reliable credible evidence to determine whether that person is guilty. It can be a long battle with child abuse cases to get enough evidence to prove anything happened. (Dupuy, 2017, pp.7-17)
The type of maltreatment that occurs can affect the brain differently and cause many socioeconomic factors, psychiatric diseases, and malfunctions in the brain structure and function. Maltreatment can be physical, mental, emotional and sexual abuse. Child abuse and neglect can have a lifelong effect on many individuals as they grow into adulthood. Being aware of the facts can help you better understand why individuals behave the way they do.
Reference
- Cicchetti, D., Howe, M., Rogosch, F., & Toth, S. (2010). The Effects of Maltreatment and Neuroendocrine Regulation on Memory Performance. Child Development, 81(5), 1504 1519. doi:10.1111/j.
- Dupuy V. Samuel (Untied States District Court, N.D Illinois, Eastern Division. June 09, 2005).
- Gould, F., Clarke, J., Heim, C., Harvey, P. D., Majer, M., & Nemeroff, C. B. (2012). The Effects of Child Abuse and Neglect on Cognitive Functioning in Adulthood. Journal of psychiatric research, 46(4), 500-6. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2012.01.005
- Hoft, M., & Haddad, L. (2017). Screening Children for Abuse and Neglect. Journal of Forensic Nursing,13(1), 1-15. doi:10.1097/jfn.0000000000000144
- Kimberly L. Henry, Celia J. Fulco, Melissa T. Merrick. (2018). The Harmful Effect of Child Maltreatment on Economic Outcomes in Adulthood. American Journal of Public Health 108, (9), 1134-1141. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2018.304635
