.. who was expected to live for not much longer. This was the opportunity that Phillip needed to establish a foothold in Portugal. Knowing that soon the Portuguese would need to find a new leader, he began to make plans so that he would be able to step in as quickly as possible once the Cardinal passed away. Phillip was already a strong candidate for successor without him having to act at all, mainly due to his mother, Isabella’s, influence over the principality.
He was widely supported by both nobles and clergy, in particular the influential religious order of the Jesuits. This support had been mostly achieved by Phillip’s forward planning, in the payment of ransoms to the Moors to release said clergymen and nobles after the Battle of Alcazarquivir, and so ensuring their backing and political hospitality. Aides of Phillip were also sent into Portugal long before Henry’s death to pay necessary bribes to people of standing and influence who would go towards providing Phillip’s road to the throne. He had also made certain of the support of trading merchants who would benefit from increased trading opportunities from the Americas once Portugal’s empire had been assimilated into his own. These quick and pre-emptive decisions played a strong role in the eventual success of Phillip, as it was this decisiveness which would give him the edge over his rivals. His main challenger to the throne was Antonio, Prior of Crato, who was the illegitimate son of Cardinal Henry’s brother.
Phillip had begun to gather an army, under the command of the Duke of Alba in the event that an invasion proved necessary, which it soon did. When Henry died, no decision had yet been made about his successor, so Phillip stepped in with force. He soon captured Lisbon and defeated Antonio’s less prepared army, who was then forced to flee to France. Portugal had become part of Phillip’s empire. Once he was ruler of Portugal he made every effort necessary to ensure that he retained the respect and support of his subjects. Portugal still existed independently in all but name alone.
Phillip allowed the people to keep all their own customs and heritage they had held for years before. The Portuguese kept their own language, laws and even coinage. On Phillip’s arrival he even took it upon himself to don the native dress and also shaved his beard. He liked Portugal so much that he resided there throughout 1580-83. He appointed a well-respected archduke to govern Portugal in his absence, Albert, and he did so both well and efficiently.
Phillip had achieved several things from this political conquest. Finally the Iberian Peninsula had one grand ruler, which had been a long-term aspiration of Phillip. It was very important that not only was Portugal itself acquired, but its entire empire as well, effectively doubling Phillip’s territories. This opened up a greater level of trade and also gave Spain a more dominating power.
Portugal could also be used as a base for attack on any Northern European foe should the need arise in the future. Just as the moriscos had posed a threat to Phillip in Granada, it was also a possibility that Portugal could be influenced, another problem which was dealt with after the take-over. The key area of the Portuguese Azores also gave important bases to Spanish fleets sailing from the Indies. Phillip had been decisive when necessary and knew exactly what he was hoping to achieve. He had been ruthless in the execution of his plans, and out-thought his opponents. This was truly a success in the reign of Phillip II.
Up to Philip’s reign, the nations of Spain and England had never had any particular conflict to speak of. This was mainly due to the representation that England posed, as a useful ally of Spain against their common enemy, the French. The first direct co-operation between the two came in 1554 with the marriage of Philip to Mary I of England. This eventuated in Philip becoming King of England, but in name only, for he held little influence and popularity amongst the English people. This ill-feeling was not helped by Spain involving England in the war against France. Mary I died in 1558 from stomach cancer and her half-sister, Elizabeth, succeeded her to the throne.
Even though Elizabeth was believed to be a Protestant, Philip was eager to offer his support and keep relations good between the nations. This was mainly due to his desire to keep Mary, Queen of Scots away from the English crown, who he feared held strong allegiances with the French. Relations began to slowly deteriorate through the 1560s as the English were responsible for many pirate raids capturing Spanish treasure in the Indies. The most notable exploit was that of Francis Drake’s expedition in the years 1576-81. Elizabeth had given her unofficial support to Drake and this heightened the already existing anxiety. The most obvious trigger point for the future conflicts is the invasion of Alba’s army into the Netherlands in 1567.
This caused great tension in England, where Elizabeth was fearful of Spanish troops so close to her borders. England also had close links with the growing number of heretics in the Netherlands. In 1568, Elizabeth took the step of confiscating several Spanish ships who had moored in English ports following a storm at sea. The ships were carrying resources destined to supply the Spanish war effort in the Netherlands. On top of this, in the early 1570s Elizabeth began to offer financial support to the Dutch rebels and paid for mercenaries to be sent there to protect the Protestant cause.
An official war between Spain and England was confirmed in 1585 when Philip seized English ships in Spanish ports for retaliation for their piracies in the Indies. Elizabeth began to fear a Spanish victory in the Netherlands, which would inevitably lead to an invasion of England itself. She signed a treaty with the rebels and sent more money and a further 6,000 soldiers, and a year later, an official English army. Philip prepared for a Spanish armada to be sent to attack and invade England. It was believed by some that Philip, who knew who was quickly ageing, wanted to end his reign with a final decisive victory in the name of Spain and Catholicism. The pope believed that Philip was moved only by considerations of ‘global strategy and revenge’.
The armada of 1588 failed. More than half of the ships sent were destroyed and 15,000 Spanish troops lost. Although it was a comprehensive loss for Spain, Philip was graceful in defeat. He accepted his failures and that he had been unable to break English allegiances with the rebels.
Instead he made plans for further armadas to attack Ireland, which would be used as a base of attack against England. These too failed, mainly due to unreliable weather. England was a remaining blot on Philip’s mind which he could not overcome, all the way up to his death. So it becomes apparent, that while Philip may not have been at his most effective consistently throughout his reign, he also showed signs of an evolved skill for leadership. The most clinical point is that Philip appeared to learn from his mistakes in the past and make changes in his political and military thinking to manipulate a situation to his advantage.
The true indication of success can be determined by comparing the state of his empire and either chronological end of his reign. Under Charles, the Holy Roman Empire may well have fared better, but Philip in time began to account for the all the problems which his coronation had inevitably created. However deep the effects Philip left upon his contemporaries, he was to leave a legacy that would never be forgotten. European History.
