There does not exist a single universal definition of ethics. A perspective of ethics is highly subjective to culture, society, and individuals. The word “ethics” comes from the Greek word “ethos” meaning “character.” “Ethics” and “morals” are often used synonymously. However, both words have distinct definitions. According to Webster Dictionary, morals deals with particular values concerning right and wrong; while ethics is more concerned with correct behavior. Thus, ethics can be defined as standards of right and wrong that governs an individual’s actions.
Ethics date back to ancient civilizations. The Code of Hammurabi (1754 BC) illustrates early “ethical” practices such as “an eye for an eye.” Some equate ethics with laws. Laws often incorporate ethical standards to which a majority of individuals under the jurisdiction of said law subscribe. But laws can deviate from ethical practices. A glance at American history reveals just that. The enslavement of humans was deemed a justifiable practice. Slavery in the United States (amongst other places) exemplifies how societiy as a whole can have distorted ethical standards.
Societal distortion of ethics is also evident in other communities around the world. For example, apartheid in South Africa and Nazi Germany. Nevertheless, there are always individuals who oppose societal ethical standards: abolitionists in the United States for example. In every community, there is a lack of public consensus on many social issues. Thus, it is inaccurate to solely equate ethics with societal norms.
Although ethics are heavily influenced by various factors, ethics are ultimately subjective to individuals. Parents and society impose ethical standards on children from birth. But, as individuals mature into adolescence and early adulthood they develop a personal sense of right versus wrong. This is illustrated by individuals having different views on religion and politics than that of their parents.
Professional ethics is a discipline that deals with the norms in various professions. Ethics in biotechnology deals with the ethical implications and applications of medical sciences. Ethics are extremely valuable in biotechnology: they set the standards to which research is conducted and standards to which the subjects of research are treated. Significant ethical issues in modern biotechnology include human subjects in clinical trials, defending against bioterrorism, and affordability.
Human subjects pose a big ethical issue in biotechnology. Most experiments performed on animal subjects are ubiquitously considered unethical for human subjects. Ethics also come to play in human donations. Whether or not cells and tissues belong to the donor after donation is a highly controversial ethical issue. The case of Henrietta Lacks exemplifies this issue.
Defending against bioterrorism is a growing ethical issue in biotechnology. It is difficult to determine the effectiveness of certain antiterrorism agent without human trials. Additionally, it is difficult for researchers to determine the human lethal dose of various harmful agents. If and when antiterrorism agents are developed, is it ethical to incorporate them into warfare? The bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki during World War II exemplifies the ethical drawbacks of biotechnology in warfare.
Affordability is another controversial ethical issue in biotechnology. Biotechnical treatments for chronic illnesses can be rather pricey. Some treatments and medication are priced so high that some patients are unable to afford life-saving resources. Quality healthcare is a fundamental human right that all individuals should have access to regardless of financial status. But it is difficult for medical researchers and health care providers to find an equilibrium between affordable and efficient treatments.
Ethics transcendent all aspects of life. The question of right versus wrong is one that has plagued mankind since the beginning of time. Ethics are necessary to promote correct conduct and good character according to the best available standards. Ethical standards are not fixed. Rather, they are continuously changing, as is society.
