The term ‘Islam’ refers to the submission of individual to the transcendent Lord and resulting peace for the soul. The Islamic faith is based on the concept of connection between human and the divine, in which there are two basic obligations on human beings- a) Obligations to Almighty, b) Obligations to environment and the creatures of the God. (Rahim 2001)
The Islam is a part of tradition that started in western academia, about two centuries ago, and has always been linked to social concerns. The question or concern in western academia about Islam can be understand in three phases as follows- I Phase- came at the beginning of 19th century concerned with the question of ‘How to govern Muslims’ living in newly established colonies such as British India, Dutch East Studies and so on. II Phase- the focus shifted to the issue of declaration of Jihad by the Ottoman Caliph in an effort to help his German allies. III Phase- the contemporary phase where the concern is linked to the presence of Muslim citizens in Europe, control of natural resources in the middle East, and to global security and a ‘war on terror’. (Buskens 2016)
Thus, there is no single interpretation of Islam as contemporary studies consider certain categories of Islam/ Islamic movements ranging from pure spiritual Sufi mystiques to the worldwide national movements such as Tablighi Jamaat, and even has radical extremist movements like the Taliban and the Al-Qaeda.
Dominant Understanding of Islam
The dominant understanding of Islam mainly derives from Western or European perspective. Edward said explained how intellectual curiosity brought new phase in development of Islamic and Middle Eastern studies in the western world (Said 1981). The dominant understanding of Islam in IR involves a kind of parochialism, prejudice and confused interpretation, ignoring its diversified existence. Such Parochialism intensified after 11Sept. 2001 and generated three assumptions:
- Intermingling of Politics and religion is unique to Islam
- Political Islam is monolithic
- Political Islam is inherently violent
These assumptions constructed a link between Islam and violence, and considered Islam as source of apocalyptical Terrorism. This brought Huntington to predict the historical conflict between Islam and West as never declining (Huntington 1996). This prediction got instant consideration after 9/11 attack, thus singled out Islamic beliefs as major source of cultural strain in the modern world. The ideas of scholars’ like- Maxime Rodinson, and Bernard Lewis inspired Huntington, that Muslim considers the spread of Islamic Law and faith, through military as well as peaceful means, as their ultimate duty. Thus, Huntington concluded that “Islam is a warlike religion and has bloody borders” as dominant understanding, which asserts violence even within Islamic world because Muslim fight amongst each other. (H.M. 2015).
Islamophobia is the new specific phobia that has gripped western societies. The Researchers and policy groups define Islamophobia as ‘ an exaggerated fear, hatred, and hostility toward Islam and Muslims that is perpetuated by negative stereotypes resulting in bias, discrimination and the marginalization and exclusion of Muslims from social, political and the civic life. It existed in the premise after the Huntington’s ‘clash of civilizations’ article, but it increased its frequency post terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, and Afghanistan and Iraq wars.
This Islamophobia got spread more by the Islamic state (known as ISIS), which forcibly interprets the public religion upon a theology of violence. It has been tied up to a kind of stereological epistemology of religion. In the vision of IS, Islam is not only the manifestation of final message of God, but also embodies esoteric truth pertaining to the apocalypse. It presumes Armed Jihad as the action that should be performed by all Muslims to purify their religion. This ideology of Jihad derives from the divine laws embedded in Sharia and the IS. (H.M. 2018)
In contemporary times, the Islamophobia concept is being “Politicized” as the political forces use anti-muslim sentiments/ fear to achieve power. For instance- The Easter Bombings attack, 2019 in Srilanka associated with National Thowheed Jama’ath (NTJ), a local militant radical Islamic group, helped Gotabaya Rajapaksa to win tenure; Similarly, The NDA-II in India used the Islamophobia post-Pulwama attack.
Antithetical Understanding of Islam
Edward said rightly pointed out that the western interpretation of alien culture (including Islam) depends on some prior circumstances which are concerned with commercial, colonial, military expansion or conquest. However, none of the texts has illuminated the human dimension of contemporary Islam. The study of Islam derives the knowledge more out of the interest of authority instead of academic concern. Edward said did not mean that only derogatory or racist caricatures of Islam found in west, but believed that only negative image of Islam continue to be prevalent as given by prominent sectors of particular society. The studies of Political Islam that is- fundamentalism, terrorism, and anti-modernism, have flooded the market since 1980s with scholars like Bernard Lewis to mobilize public opinion against the ‘threat’ of Islam.
Edward said pointed lack of two conditions in knowing other cultures- a) Uncoercive contact with alien culture through real exchange; b) Self- consciousness about the interpretative project itself. Thus, the absence of these conditions makes the knowledge of Islamic world in west not interpretation, but an assertion of Power. Thus he believed another view of Islam is required that is- Antithetical Knowledge, which is an actively sought and contested knowledge, not recitation of accepted facts and views. (Said 1981)
This antithetical knowledge brought centuries back by Al- Afghani, who came as the intellectual godfather of Islamic revolution. Michael Foucault even called him as the first great insurrection against the global system of west. He followed methodological literalism, and tried to liberate Islam religion from the dogmas, like Martin Luther did to Christianity. Afghani was way advance than other Muslim intellectuals. While other saw reform as matter of adopting European Knowledge and practical skills into their societies, Afghani was already alert to the perils ahead for the Muslim countries in 1860s, when European presence in Asia was already confined to India. Afghani was a prominent antithetical scholar as explained how religion is best method for creating social order, and provides conditions for civilization progress.
For Afghani, Islam is a necessary source of unity, identity and mobilization against imperialism. He also believed that rationalism and science were not western imports but traditional elements of Islamic culture. His views were seen with suspicion and hostility by the theologists leaders. He embraces Islamic principles as a way of bringing modernization without western hegemony. Thus, the antithetical understanding of Afghani reject Western civilization, and Edward said’s belief that ‘outside culture people cannot interpret Islam in adequate terms’. (Mishra 2012)
The Knowledge process of International relations mainly derive its ontology from the Eurocentric theories, thus is limited in nature. The epistemology of these theories is narrow in scope as only has knowledge from Eurocentric perspective, which serves the western purpose that is- to make them look good. The methodology to generate their knowledge derives from ‘Historicism’, Parochialism, Prejudice and confused interpretation.
Afghani and Said contribute an unconventional approach to the knowledge of International relations. They emphasize to expand the horizons of the ontology to include not only the Eurocentric, but also Non-Eurocentric theories and perspectives. The epistemology they follow tries to link the West and East perspectives, to have a broader and universal understanding. They challenge the universality of the one-sided or limited epistemology of International relations. The methodology they brought in International relations is antithetical, and emancipator in nature. They contribute more to critical theories, not in problem solving theories of International relations as seek to challenge and change the existing knowledge instead of accepting it.
Islam as a discipline means an epistemology with its own methodology. Its study involve two means- a) Madarasa orthodox kind; b) Re-interpreting broader mainstream IR theory in Islamic terms. The former retain its significance since the advent of Islamic studies, while the latter began since 1960s when Islam representation in Arab world confronted the Zionism bias towards the Arab world. For Edward said the oriental base or the orthodox madarasa interpretation created a negative stereotype of ‘Othering’. For West, in order to look better than East, the East has to be defamed. Thus this Zionist and Islamophobian understanding of Islam needs to be challenged.
The contemporary understanding of Islam has narrowed it down to violence and hatred, which gets more confirmation with every new act of Terrorism. The problem of the violence is the agency of individual, irrespective of any religion. Although some sects of Islam do promote violence and hatred, however such tendencies could be found in every religion for instance- the crusaders in Christianity, Hindu nationalism and related terror, and so on. The generalization of Islam with violence and warlike religion, is promoting threat to Muslim Identity and culture. The Islam stands for brotherhood and peace, but the western intellectual and the Islamic state (ISIS) have turned it into a hostile one.
Bibliography
- Buskens, Leon. ‘Dichtomies, Trasnformations, and the Continuities in the Study of Islam.’ In Islamic studies in the Twenty-First Century: Transformations and Continuities, by Leon Buskens, 11-28. Amsterdams: Amstredam University press, 2016.
- H.M., Sanjeev Kumar. ‘Islam and the Question of Confessional Religious Identity: The Islamic state, Apostasy, and the making of a Theology of Violence.’ SAGE , 2018: 327-348.
- H.M., Sanjeev Kumar. ‘Responding to the western critiques of the Muslim world: Deconstructing the Cliche of Islamophobia and the Genealogies of Islamic Extermism.’ British Journal of Middle Easterns studies , 2015.
- Huntington, Samuel P. The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. United States: Simon and Schuster, 1996.
- Mishra, Pankaj. From the Ruins of Empire: The Revolt Against the West and the Remaking of Asia. London: Penguin Books, 2012.
- Rahim, Habibeh. ‘Understanding Islam.’ Jstor, 2001: 670-674.
- Said, Edward. Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts determine How we see the Rest of the World. NewYork: Vintage Books, 1981.
